BODY MASS INDEX AND FATNESS AS CORRELATES OF HEALTH-RELATED PHYSICAL FITNESS AMONG TEACHERS IN RIVERS STATE
ABSTRACT: This study investigated the assessment of Body Mass Index and fatness as correlates of health-related physical fitness among secondary school teachers in Rivers state. One hundred and twenty (120) teachers comprising sixty (60) males and sixty (60) females were purposively selected from six secondary schools; with two (2) from each senatorial district. Nine objectives, nine research questions, and nine hypotheses were used to guide the study. Height and weight and health-related physical fitness components of cardiovascular fitness, muscular endurance, arm muscle strength and body flexibility of the participants were assessed. Body mass index (BMI) was computed to classify participants into normal weight, underweight and overweight/obese groups based on American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD) approved BMI chart, while skinfold thickness was measured to determine the participants’ percent body fat. The correlational research design was adopted for this study, and data collected were analyzed using the statistical tool of percentages for demographic data and Pearson Product Moment Correlation for answering research questions and hypothesis testing at 0.05 level of significance. The results showed that a significant positive relationship exists between BMI and percent body fat and both showed a significant negative correlation with cardiovascular fitness and muscular endurance. However, BMI showed a moderate negative correlation with arm muscle strength and flexibility, while percent body fat showed a low positive correlation with flexibility, there was a significant negative relationship between percent body fat and arm muscle strength. It is recommended that school management should encourage their teachers to engage in regular physical activities and the government of Rivers State should embark on a massive enlightenment campaign to combat the dangers of overweight/obesity and its associated hypokinetic diseases among teachers in Rivers state.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
In this age of technological advancement and limitless concentration of energy-packed foods, almost everyone irrespective of location, gender or age is at the risk of overweight and or obese. Therefore, the rising prevalence of overweight and obesity amongst youths and adults has become a source of concern for most public health administrators across the globe (Ogden, Carroll, Curtin, Lamb & Flegal, 2010). Currently, more than half a million adults have been reported to be obese worldwide (World Health Organization, 2015). Although the highest prevalence of obesity is documented in the developed countries, however, evidence of an increasing prevalence of obesity in the developing countries, including Nigeria abounds (Adeboye, Bermano& Rolland, 2012, Imes & Burke, 2012). Overweight and obesity are two terms often used interchangeably; nevertheless, they are not synonymous. While overweight is described as having too much weight about physical size and status, obesity is defined as having too much fat than required for healthy living (William, 2006).
Corbin and Lindsey, (2007) defined obesity as a condition in which a person has a high percentage of body fat and according to New Zealand Ministry of Health (2013), obesity is characterized by a very high amount of body fat in relations to lean body mass, usually associated with an increased risk of several health conditions. Overweight is not harmful or dangerous to health except where it coexists with over fat (Iro, 2008). The term overweight refers to bodyweight that is greater than what is considered healthy for a certain height (Campbell, Engel, Timperio, Cooper, & Crawford, 2000). Research shows that overweight children may not only become obese adults but also suffer certain chronic diseases in adulthood (WHO, 2015). Chronic diseases are diseases that persist over a long period, usually three months or longer (Mosby, 2015). A chronic disease may be progressive, result in complete or partial disability, or even lead to death (Campbell et.al, 2000). Similarly, percent body fat is generally defined as the percentage of body weight that is composed of fat, while body composition, a related term is seen as the total components of which the body is made up. William, (2006) defined body composition as the total mass of the body which includes fat and non -fat components. Baumgartner, Jackson, Mahar, and Rowe (2007) describe it as the classification of the body into fat weight and fat-free weight. The total body weight that is made up of fat component is termed percent body fat, while the weight of the body that is composed of fat-free components such as muscles, tendons, bones, system organs, and connective tissues is referred to as lean body weight (Iro, 2008). Studies have revealed that excess body fat is associated with poor public health conditions, resulting in various medical problems including hypertension, diabetes and heart diseases (Baumgartner, et.al, 2007). Males with body fat above 20% of body weight and females with body fat above 30% of body weight are considered to be obese (William, 2006). The consequence of this is increased morbidity and reduced longevity. In the same vein, excess body fat reduces health-related physical fitness and lowers the ability to perform many activities that require sustained effort, work inclusive (Alker, Wang, Pbert, Thorsen and Lemon, (2015). Based on the above-stated reasons, accurate measurements of percent body fat are needed to assess the individual’s fat status to develop quality and effective preventive measures.
Physical fitness, on the other hand, is the ability of the body system to work together efficiently to allow the individual to be healthy and effectively perform activities of daily living (Corbin & Lindsey, 2007). It is the ability to perform daily tasks without undue fatigue. Physical fitness can be divided into health-related and skill-related fitness (Emiola, 2007). While skill-related fitness is crucial to performance, health-related fitness is critical for everyday activities. The factors that make physical fitness measurable are what Emiola (2007) termed components of physical fitness. According to Emiola (2007), components of health-related fitness include cardiovascular fitness, muscular endurance, muscular strength, flexibility and resistance to disease. Health-related fitness can be measured using both laboratory and field tests (William, 2006). Although laboratory tests give accurate results, nevertheless, due to high costs, scarce laboratory equipment and lack of technical know-how it is less accessible (Baumgartner, et.al. 2007). Some field tests can be used to measure health-related fitness. These include one-mile run/walk, 20m PACER test and 12-minute run, 6 minutes walk, PACER, 1.5 miles run-walk, Rockport 1mile walk (cardiovascular fitness); sit-up test, pull-up test, curl-up test (muscular endurance), Push up test, one minute half sit –up (muscular strength); Sit and reach test, trunk flexion, (Flexibility); body circumferences, skinfold measurements, body mass index (body composition) and others (Baumgartner, et.al. 2007).
Owing to its effects on the health, economic and social life of the obese, obesity could be described as the worst enemy of the human race. Several studies have indicated obesity as the third leading cause of death globally only ranked behind cardiovascular disease and stroke (Aladeniyi, Adeniyi, Fawole, Adeolu, Ter Goon, Ajayi & Owolabi, 2017). Aside from being ranked the third leading cause of death obesity is closely associated with chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, stroke, hypertension, and cancer, thereby directly and indirectly increasing morbidity and mortality rate globally. Studies have affirmed a significant relationship between common health risk factors such as obesity, depressive symptoms and smoking and the rate of productivity among secondary school teachers. For instance, Alker, et.al (2015) observed that obesity, depressive symptoms, and smoking were significantly associated with poor work productivity due to absenteeism, and presenteeism. Absenteeism is the loss of workdays due to health concerns while presenteeism refers to a decrease in on-the-job productivity as a result of ill health. Andrea, Anna, and Diana, (2017) identified reduced work productivity arising from short-term and long-term inability to work, losses due to sick leave and inefficiency at work as inevitable economic implication of overweight and obesity. This according to the authors constitutes major indirect costs of overweight and obesity. Psychologically, the overweight and obese individuals develop poor esteem and lack of confidence usually due to difficulty in performing basic movements of life such as walking and running. All these puts together have been found to have adverse effects on the productivity of workers including teachers at various levels. The consequence of which is reduced income and higher rates of poverty decreased the likelihood of getting married, and poorer academic performance and progress (Nieman, 2011).
Furthermore, aside poor productivity due to psychological and socio-economic status of the obese, studies have also established relationship among weight category and health-related physical fitness among different groups (Bovet, Auguste& Burdette, 2007; Nikolaidis, & Ingebrigtsen,2013; Eswaramoorthi, Abdullah, Juahir, Maliki, Musa, Kosni, …..& Adnan, 2017). Body Mass Index (BMI) is mostly used in the assessment of overweight and obesity among children and adults (Social Policy Evaluation and Research Unit, 2015). Body Mass Index is the ratio of body weight in kilograms to height per square meter. Mathematically, it is calculated by dividing the weight in kilograms by the square of height in meter (BMI = kg/m2). Using BMI, people can be classified as underweight (BMI≤18.5kg/m2), normal weight (18.5-25 kg/m2≤), overweight (25-30 kg/m2) or obese (≥30 kg/m2). According to experts, healthy BMI can be determined through individual performances in health-related fitness tests (Chen, Lin, Peng, Li, Wu, Chiang, …& Huang 2002), Studies investigating the correlation amongst weight status and health-related physical fitness have started a decline in fitness with increasing BMI (Paradisis, Zacharogiannis, Mandila, Smirtiotou, Argeitaki& Cooke 2014). Although, recent studies among civil servants found that people categorized as obese by BMI did not all perform poorly in fitness tests (Aladeniyi et.al. 2017). However, previous studies have revealed negative interactions between BMI, Percent Body Fat, and fitness inactive and sedentary populations (Nikolaïdis, 2012; Aladeniyi et.al. 2017). Nevertheless, the relationship between health-related physical fitness components, Body Fat Percent and BMI categories about teachers is unclear. Still, to my understanding, studies involving relationships between health-related fitness components, Body Fat Percent (BFP) and BMI categories with regards to secondary school teachers in Nigeria are either non-existent or not published or both. Consequent to this, the researcher deemed it fit to examine the health-related physical fitness of secondary school teachers in Rivers State in the light of their BMI category. This study became imperative since a negative correlation exists between obesity and workers’ productivity, teachers are inclusive (Social Policy Evaluation and Research Unit, 2015; Alkeret.al., 2015 & Andrea, et.al 2017). Therefore, this present study aimed to investigate Body Mass Index (BMI), Body Fat Percent (BFP) as correlates of health-related physical fitness among secondary school teachers in Rivers state.
Statement of the Problem
The effects of being overweight or obese on health-related physical fitness appear to vary with the component of physical fitness being examined in the adult population of different activity levels. However, the study became inevitable with the researcher’s observation of huge economic losses arising from the negative health consequences of obesity (World Health Organization, 2014), and its attendant implications on the socio-economic condition of teachers which include poor self-esteem, absenteeism, and presenteeism which were indicted by previous studies as factors responsible for workers’ low productivity. Available literature shows that studies investigating Body Mass Index and Percent Body Fat of various categories of workers about their health-related physical fitness abounds. Nevertheless, studies involving teachers are non-existent or unreported. And because teaching job is classified as a sedentary occupation the researcher thought it wise that the body mass index and body fat percent of teachers should be examined about their health-related physical fitness to ascertain whether or not the claim that teaching is a sedentary occupation is true. Therefore, this study aimed at investigating body mass index and body fat percent as correlates of health-related physical fitness among secondary school teachers in Rivers state.
Aim and Objectives of the Study
This study aimed to investigate body mass index and body fat percent as correlates of health-related physical fitness among secondary school teachers in Rivers state. Specifically, this study sought to achieve the following objectives:
- Determine the relationship between Body Mass Index (BMI) and cardiovascular fitness of secondary school teachers in Rivers state.
- Determine the relationship between Body Mass Index (BMI) and the muscular endurance of secondary school teachers in Rivers state.
- Determine the relationship between Body Mass Index (BMI) and handgrip strength of secondary school teachers in Rivers state.
- Determine the relationship between Body Mass Index (BMI) and flexibility of secondary school teachers in Rivers state.
- Determine the relationship between Percent Body Fat (PBF) and cardiovascular fitness of secondary school teachers in Rivers state.
- Find out the relationship between Percent Body Fat (PBF) and muscular endurance of secondary school teachers in Rivers state.
- Determine the relationship between Percent Body Fat (PBF) and handgrip strength of secondary school teachers in Rivers state.
- Determine the relationship between Percent Body Fat (PBF) and flexibility of secondary school teachers in Rivers state.
Research Questions
The following research questions were used to address the objectives of this study:
- What is the relationship between Body Mass Index (BMI) and cardiovascular fitness of secondary school teachers in Rivers state?
- What is the relationship between Body Mass Index (BMI) and the muscular endurance of secondary school teachers in Rivers state?
- What is the relationship between Body Mass Index (BMI) and handgrip strength of secondary school teachers in Rivers state?
- What is the relationship between Body Mass Index (BMI) and the flexibility of secondary school teachers in Rivers state?
- What is the relationship between Percent Body Fat (PBF) and cardiovascular fitness of secondary school teachers in Rivers state?
- What is the relationship between Percent Body Fat (PBF) and the muscular endurance of secondary school teachers in Rivers state?
- What is the relationship between Percent Body Fat (PBF) and handgrip strength of secondary school teachers in Rivers state?
- What is the relationship between Percent Body Fat (PBF) and flexibility of secondary school teachers in Rivers state?
Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were tested in this study at .05 alpha levels.
- There is no significant relationship between Body Mass Index (BMI) and cardiovascular fitness of secondary school teachers in Rivers state.
- There is no significant relationship between Body Mass Index (BMI) and the muscular endurance of secondary school teachers in Rivers state.
- There is no significant relationship between Body Mass Index (BMI) and handgrip strength of secondary school teachers in Rivers state.
- There is no significant relationship between Body Mass Index (BMI) and the flexibility of secondary school teachers in Rivers state.
- There is no significant relationship between Percent Body Fat (PBF) and cardiovascular fitness of secondary school teachers in Rivers state.
- There is no significant relationship between Percent Body Fat (PBF) and the muscular endurance of secondary school teachers in Rivers state.
- There is no significant relationship between Percent Body Fat (PBF) and handgrip strength of secondary school teachers in Rivers state.
- There is no significant relationship between Percent Body Fat (PBF) and flexibility of secondary school teachers in Rivers state.
Significance of the study
This study was considered significant for the following reasons:
This study may help the school administrators, teachers, sports masters, and mistresses to know the potential effects of excessive body weight on the health, fitness, and productivity of teachers in secondary schools. It may also help to educate the school administrators, Physical Education teachers, coaches and sports masters and mistresses on the possible health consequences of overweight and obesity.
Furthermore, the findings may help the policymakers and school administrators on the need to promote physical fitness among secondary school teachers as a means of preventing overweight and obesity. The findings of this study may also help the policymakers and school administrators on the need to promote physical fitness among secondary school teachers as a means of improving productivity. Finally, while researchers in exercise science are likely to find the findings of the present study useful in conducting future researches, teachers may be motivated to pick up an exercise program to maintain a healthy weight.
Delimitation of the study
The scope of this work included the relationship between Body Mass Index, anthropometric measures of height and weight; percent body fat and health-related physical fitness of cardiovascular fitness, muscular endurance, muscular strength, and flexibility. Secondary school teachers in Rivers state only shall be eligible for this study.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Cover page
Title page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgements v
Abstract vi
Table of contents vii
List of table x
List of figure xi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study 1
1.2 Statement of the problem 5
1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study 6
1.4 Research Questions 7
1.5 Hypotheses 8
1.5 Significance of the study 9
1.6 Delimitation of the study 9
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Conceptual Framework 10
2.1.1 Physical Fitness 11
2.1.2 Components of Physical Fitness 14
2.1.3 Health-Related Components of Physical Fitness 15
2.1.4 Assessment of Body Composition Techniques 20
2.1.5 Body Composition and Health Related Physical Fitness 30
2.1.6 Obesity, Physical Activity and Youth Fitness 34
2.1.7 Obesity and Chronic Diseases 37
2.1.8 Physical Activities and Hypokinetic Diseases 38
2.1.9 Prevention of Obesity 39
2.1.10 Secondary School Teachers in Rivers State 42
2.2 Theoretical Framework 43
2.2.1 Homeostasis Theory of Obesity 43
2.2.2 Diseases Theory of Obesity 49
2.3 Review of Empirical Studies 49
2.3.1 Summary of Reviewed Literature 60
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design 64
3.2 Population 65
3.3 Sample and Sampling Technique 66
3.4 Research Instrument 66
3.5 Validity of the Instrument 74
3.6 Reliability of the Instrument 74
3.7 Methods of Data Collection 75
3.8 Methods of Data Analysis 81.
3.9 Ethical Approval 81
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Data Presentation and Analysis 82
4.2 Discussion of Findings 92
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary of the Study 97
5.2 Limitation of the Study 98
5.3 Conclusion 99
5.4 Recommendations 99
5.5 Contributions to Knowledge 100
REFERENCES 101
Appendix A: Ethical Approval 112
Appendix B: Letter of Introduction 113
Appendix C: Consent Form 114
Appendix D: Data Collection Form 115
Appendix E: SPSS Analysis 116
LIST OF TABLES
2.1: Summary of Comparison Among Body Composition Methods:
Cost, Ease of Use, and Accuracy in Estimating Body Fat. 3
4.1: Percentage Age Distribution of the Participants 82
4.2: Gender Distribution of the Participants 83
4.3: Weight Status of the Participants (n=60) 83
4.4: PPMC summary table showing the relationship between Body Mass
Index (BMI) and cardiovascular fitness of secondary school teachers in Rivers state
4.5: PPMC summary table showing the relationship between Body Mass
Index (BMI) and muscular endurance of secondary school teachers in
Rivers state 85
4.6: PPMC summary table showing the relationship between Body Mass
Index (BMI) and handgrip strength of secondary school teachers in
Rivers state
4.7: PPMC summary table showing the relationship between Body Mass
Index (BMI) and flexibility of secondary school teachers in
Rivers state
4.8: PPMC summary table showing the relationship between Body Mass
Index percent body fat and cardiovascular fitness of secondary school teachers in
Rivers state 87
4.9: PPMC summary table showing the relationship between Body Mass
Index percent body fat and muscular endurance of secondary school teachers in
Rivers state 87
4.10: PPMC summary table showing the relationship between Body Mass
Index (BMI) and handgrip strength of secondary school teachers in
Rivers state 88
4.11: PPMC summary table showing the relationship between Body Mass
Index (BMI) and flexibility of secondary school teachers in
Rivers state
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Illustration of Physiological Homeostasis 45
Figure 2.2 The Circle of Discontent 45
Figure 2.3 The Homeostatic Theory of Obesity 47
Figure 3.1 Stadumeter for Measuring Standing Height 67
Figure 3.2 Harpenden Skinfold Caliper 68
Figure 3.3 Skyndex I Skinfold Caliper 68
Figure 3.4 Skyndex II Skinfold Caliper 69
Figure 3.5 lange Skinfold Caliper 69
Figure 3.6 Jamar Skinfold Caliper 69
Figure 3.7 Slim Guide Skinfold Caliper 70
Figure 3.8 Fat-O-Meter Skinfold Caliper 70
Figure 3.9 Weight Measuring Scales 71
Figure 3.10 Hand Grip Dynamometers 72
Figure 3.11 Standard Procedure for Measuring Standing Height 75
Figure 3.12 Standard Procedure for Measuring Body Weight 76
Figure 3.13 Standard Procedure for Measuring Skinfold Thickness 79
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